Heroes Robert Cormier Atmosphere and Mood Essay

Francis has entered LaSalle’s tenement with the intentions of killing LaSalle. Francis is very quick to declare the reason for his presence at Larry’s tenement. Ever since Francis came back from the war, killing Larry is all Francis has wanted to accomplish. ‘Say your prayers†¦ I rehearsed those words so many times through the years.’ Straight away we see this sense of determination within Francis. Francis has been ‘rehearsing’ this moment ever since Larry raped Nicole. He’s been waiting for LaSalle’s return to Frenchtown for ‘years’ so that he can seek revenge. Here Cormier creates a sense of violence and tension. ‘I’ve decided to aim for the heart’ Francis’ thoughts towards Larry are quite violent and he wishes to ‘shatter his heart the way he broke Nicole’s’. Francis wants nothing but revenge and intends to attain it. Cormier’s use of Similes is very clever . Francis wants to do physically what Larry did to them mentally. Despite Larry’s horrific character, he knows Francis very well. Larry knows that no matter how angry Francis is, he will never be able to physically murder someone. Larry ‘withdraws a pistol’ knowing that Francis won’t be able to fulfil his ‘mission’. The pistol was a ‘relic from the war’; it seems as if everything bad that happened in Francis’ life lies right there in that tenement. ‘Leave me here, leaver everything here†¦ leave it all behind with me’ We can see how quickly the mood changes, from Francis’ violent words to Larry’s words of comfort. Francis ‘suddenly wants go get out of there’ he wants no part in Larry anymore and the ‘aroma of the soup is sickening and the tenement is too warm.’ Cormier creates a rather nauseating atmosphere; Larry’s tenement is a place no one would want to be in. ‘The sound of a pistol cracks the air.’ The theme of innocence runs throughout the whole book, just like the world innocence was shattered by the war and Nicoles innocence was shattered by Larry, Frenchtown is now also shat tered by a ‘pistol shot’ cracking the air.

A Critique on Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” Essay

The task of this paper is two-fold; first, this paper will trace and explain the evolution of Martin Luther King, Jr. ’s belief that war, racism and economic injustice are all intertwined and can be dealt with the restructuring of society’s priorities and addressed the necessity of a revolution of values; second, this paper will also explain how he carried out his beliefs in the his speech at the Lincoln Memorial, â€Å"I Have a Dream†. At the onset of this paper, it is important to note that King’s ‘background’ [which includes his race, habituation, education and religion among many others] is crucial in his struggle against racial discrimination, violence and economic injustice as experienced by blacks in the United States of America. This was clearly stated in the speech wherein hundreds of thousands of people were able to serve as audience. In this speech, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. talks of manufactured and institutionalized oppression, I mean oppression which involves the mechanisms of law and power relations the basis of which is against the ‘natural law’. The speech purpose is made evident here as its intention was made clear: that racism should be abolished. Furthermore, Luther King’s striking delivery made it more of just an expression of freedom but of a struggle against an intangible foe: his fellow American’s mentality. Natural law theorists, following the thoughts of St. Augustine that â€Å"an unjust law is not a law at all† and Aquinas’ notion of â€Å"law as an ordinance of reason†, view morality as essentially tied up with the very essence of law. How does King figure in all of this? How can we explain the evolution of King’s ideological perspective? The point is clear: Oppression and unfair treatment of individuals is not morally valid nor is it morally permissible most especially if the basis of such is the individual’s ethnicity or race. As the Kantians believed, each person has a capacity for rational deliberation and choice and as such, an autonomous being with dignity and therefore, ought to be respected by virtue of being human persons. The evolution of King’s ideological perspective may therefore be construed in such way that it is a product, both of his experiences as a black living in a white-dominated society and his philosophical and political development and this may be inferred from Fairclough’s book, â€Å"Martin Luther King, Jr. †, 1995. King’s speeches very clearly communicate his views: â€Å"I believe that unarmed truth and unconditional love will have the final word in reality†¦. I have the audacity to believe that peoples everywhere can have three meals a day for their bodies, education and culture for their minds, and dignity, equality, and freedom for their spirits[†¦] (as cited by Carson, 1998). Three important points about King and his political thrusts, philosophical orientation and as to why he may be called a â€Å"radical democrat† may be inferred from the aforementioned quotation in his speech. First, as a leading figure in â€Å"civil rights movement† King believed in the tenets of democracy and liberalism in the sense that he believed that both white and black Americans must have fair treatment in the realm of the law, for the purpose of law itself is the administration of social justice. Second, he believed in the â€Å"non-necessity of violence†. Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s â€Å"civil disobedience†, he believed that there are peaceful ways in and through which the problem of political and economic injustice may be resolved. It may further be inferred that for him, political, economic and social change can best be achieved not through violence [and that the government should not keep itself busy from going to war, as in the case of the Vietnam War] nor by transforming a portion or a sector of society but what is needed is a restructuring of the society as a whole. King believed that a â€Å"revolution of values† is a matter of strict necessity. King’s views may be identified as â€Å"radical† in this sense. He emphasized the need to restructure even how we think about black Americans or African Americans. It may be inferred that racism, the feeling of being superior over another race or ethnic group or nationality is grounded on the wrong premises; wrong modes of thinking and reasoning. It is by transforming our psyche and by appealing through reason and conscience that society as a whole may chart its rightful path towards genuine social change. Third, he believed and fought not only for civil rights but also for economic changes especially labor rights and lobbied for law reforms to be enacted to protect Negroes from exploitation and oppressive schemes adopted by employers. These include fair treatment and equal work opportunity, just compensation, etc. This is how he carried out his beliefs in the Memphis Strike and the Poor People’s Campaign. King served as a voice crying for the emancipation not only of black Americans but also of other human beings from the chains of oppression. Based on the above discussion, we can see why King believed that the problems and conflicts brought about by war, racism and economic injustice are all intertwined. What we can infer from his views is the interweaving and interconnecting patterns brought about by racism itself. Furthermore, the speech was made memorable as it was delivered at the Lincoln Memorial. Abraham Lincoln was the first to abolish the slave trade in the southern states during his term which was considered as a significant step towards racial equality in the United States. But racism is not in itself the root of the problem; it is merely an effect of a traceable cause. This cause, this root of racism, is none other than a distorted value system, a wrong frame of mind resulting to feelings of superiority and even contempt and hate which further results to taking an unfair advantage of other human beings, plus a very materialistic market essentially driven by capital. The fault is, at bottom, deeply embedded with the minds of persons and a wrong value system, a wrong sense of pride and nationality, for it fails, in the Kantian sense, to respect persons for the sake of being human persons, not as mere means and tools that another person or race may use but as ends-in-themselves, possessing the capacity for rational thought, capable of making rational choices and thereby, beings that are autonomous and dignified and for the aforementioned reasons, deserve to be respected. References: Carson, C. A Call to Conscience: The Landmark Speeches of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. : Warner Books; Reprint edition (2002). Fairclough, A. Martin Luther King, Jr. : University of Georgia Press, c. 1995.

Applied Linguistics - Manglish Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 26500 words

Applied Linguistics - Manglish - Dissertation Example --------- 36 2.2.2.6 Copula ‘be’ ----------------------------------------------------- 38 2.2.2.7 Modals ----------------------------------------------------------- 39 2.2.2.8 Stative verbs in the progressive ------------------------------ 41 2.2.2.9 Clause structure ------------------------------------------------ 41 2.2.2.10 Other syntactic variational features ------------------------- 43 2.2.3 Syntax of the ME basilect ------------------------------------------------------- 46 2.3 Phonology ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48 2.3.1 ... apter Three: The Use of English in Malaysia ------------------------------------------- 58 3.1 From English to Bahasa Malaysia in Post-Colonial Malaysia ---------------------- 59 3.2 The return of English to Modern Malaysia -------------------------------------------- 66 3.3 The importance of English in Malaysia today ----------------------------------------- 70 Chapter Four: Discussion and Conclusion --------------------------------------------------- 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85 APPENDIX: Malay Borrowings in ME --------------------------------------------------------- 99 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Features of Sociolects of Malaysian English --------------------------------------- 14 Figure 2: Modal Verbs in SBE, ME and BM -------------------------------------------------- 33 Figure 3: A Comparative Presentation of the Responses of a SBE Speaker and a ME Basilect Speaker to Variopus Situations ------------------ ------------------- 40 ABSTRACT The emergence of ‘New Englishes’ in non-native English speaking countries, like Malaysia, has become an interesting area of research study in linguistics. A lot of the data for this dissertation comes from a survey of previous related studies, and from Malaysian newspapers, magazines, television and the like, which are illustrative of Malaysian English. To this pursuit, this descriptive non-experimental research on the development of Malaysian English seeks to answer the question: What has contributed to the development of Malaysian English as it is today? This study starts with the historical development of English in Malaysia. Then it continues by identifying the affected specific linguistic features. The differences between Malaysian English and

All parents should attend government parenting classes Essay

All parents should attend government parenting classes - Essay Example Nevertheless, a lot of queries might be brought up as to whether it is logical for parents to be left to raise their children without any interference given that there has been an increase in vices such as substance abuse, bulling and sometimes fatal fights. For new parents and those who have trouble when it comes to raising their children, parenting classes are a potential solution to helping them. Although some fear that parenting classes increase the socio-economic gap between citizens, government parenting classes will be beneficial in; mitigating the ripple effects of poor parenting on the society, upholding children’s rights to getting quality parenting and standardizing parenting information for reliability and consistency. All parents should go to government sponsored parenting classes because they will help reduce the negative impacts that bad parenting has on the society as a whole. According to Casey and Kirby (2006), in matters regarding the bringing up of its futu re citizens, the government has a firm financial, practical and moral concern. This is the reason why most democracies that are liberalist in nature extend pricey and broad child support systems in order to assist parents in the upbringing of young individuals who will turn out to be respectful, responsible, active and upright members of the society. These support systems include; arrangements for parental leave, nursery care that is free and payments for child support. Casey and Kirby (2006) also raise the contention that preventive and proactive action brings about the best outcomes as opposed waiting to deal with the problems after they arise. The successfulness and cohesiveness of the next generations could be ensured by the implementation of mandatory parenting classes hence raising parenting standards for the benefit of current and future generations. If all parents attended government parenting classes, children’s rights to getting quality parenting will be upheld. Dow ard (2006) argues that making parenting classes mandatory would in a great way aid in the prioritization of the children’s best interests without putting a restriction on the educational choices of these parents. This is because it might not be possible to put into place supervisory or legal systems that would provide encouragement to parents to take better care of their children. While merely having an effect on parents at a minimal degree, parenting classes would certainly aid parents in determining and acquiring knowledge as to what is considered to be good for their children; this would in turn enforce the right of a child to an upbringing that is decent. Bortolotti and Cutas (2009, p.17) give the argument that dealing with bad parenting will in effect cub child social exclusion. For instance, 90% of juvenile wrongdoers have been known to have a history of behavioural issues as children. Moreover, according to LaFollette (1980, p. 24), there are some instances in which a child’s failings are clearly as a result of poor parenting. For example, a fourteen year old boy or girl with poor health, a record of crime and no educational qualifications has almost surely been failed by his/her parents. It is therefore better if these classes are made mandatory for all parents since the government has no means of determining in advance which parents will specifically struggle in raising his/her child. For the betterment of the society at large, a

African american and Immigrant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

African american and Immigrant - Essay Example opinion this subordination primarily involves Black Americans and is used as some form of initiation for an immigrant to be admitted and assimilated into the United States. This paper explores the significance of Ahmad’s perspective on immigration and race issues in America to understanding Ralph Ellison’s story, the Battle Royal and specifically identify what the young African Americans experience today in this context. In Ahmad’s discussion of Morrison’s model of immigrant assimilation, he suggested that Blacks are no longer the sole subjects of the subordination framework in the immigration and assimilation tradition in the US as claimed by Morrison. He attributed this development primarily to the dramatic change in demographic shift, which transforms a largely European-composed American society into one that is predominantly Latino and Asian. According to Ahmad, â€Å"immigrants today are made American not only when they learn to subordinate African Americans, but when they are racialized as subordinates as well.† (102) In Battle Royal, Ralph Ellison illustrated through the Invisible Man what was the ideal African-American individual - one who knows his place, docile and follows the standards that was set for him by the white community. He is equal with the others when we talk of the common good but excluded like the finger of the hand in everything social.1 After the black protagonist’s speech near the end of the story, the white school superintendent exulted on his speech with its impassioned affirmation to the racial stereotype with these words: Gentlemen, you see that I did not overpraise this boy. He makes a good speech and some day he’ll lead his people in the proper paths. And I don’t have to tell you that that is important in these days and times. This is a good, smart boy, and so to encourage him in the right direction, in the name of education I wish to present him a prize†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (281) The young Negro was overjoyed with the approval

Future Trends in HR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Future Trends in HR - Essay Example The digital age enables part-time, remote work along with new paradigms that reward creativity. Motivation cohesive teams capitalize upon new systems of applying human intellect. Certain advances in HRM have helped meet these challenges. Holistic management helps leaders see people within an organizational framework where these process networks are emerging (Chiavenato 2001). Some of the traditional roles of HRM have become domain of middle management, and strategic planning has become a task for HRM. Joint decisions and communication augment this emerging corporate culture.Helping employees develop their full potential as well as developing alternatives to traditional conflict management are just some of the new trends toward more effective HRM. As globalization continues to consolidate many of the previously disparate systems in business, HRM is changing to meet these new challenges. It is becoming more and more dynamic and is emerging as a synergistic force in this global economy. Nevertheless, as nuances in organizations appear, HRM must adapt to dynamically meet these demands. Chiavenato, I. (2001). Advances and challenges in human resource management in the new millennium.

Using Economic Theories to Analysis a Company Essay

Using Economic Theories to Analysis a Company - Essay Example is not so good. The company is facing stiff challenges from the competitors now. Its marketing strategies are believed to be ineffective compared to that of the competitors’. This report analyses the effectiveness of Apple Inc.’s marketing strategies in recent times with the help of its 2013 annual report. The recent recession has caused a lot of problems to companies all over the world in general and American companies in particular. The collapse of Lehman Brothers and many other American companies has caused concerns in the minds of American investors. Investors in share markets or stock markets are keen on knowing the present performances and the future prospects of prominent companies. The aim of this report is to analyze the performances of an American company in recent times with the help of established economic theories and principles. â€Å"Apple was founded in Cupertino, California on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne to sell the Apple I personal computer kit† (Apple Inc. History, 2008). The initial name of the company was Apple computers since the company was interested only in doing business in the computer and operating system industry. However, the severe competition from the Microsoft, forced the company owners to explore other options to survive in the market. In the 80’s and 90’s, Apple computers struggled a lot to survive in the market. Many people thought that the company was on the verge of closing down. However, at the beginning of 2000, the company has diversified its business and entered the consumer electronics industry. The name of the company was changed from Apple computers to Apple Inc. to make the consumers all over the world aware that the company is no more a computer company, but a major player in the consumer electronics industry. A series of innovative products such as iPhone, iPod, iPad, iTunes etc were introduced in

Examining the Sustainable Procurement Practices in the Public Sector - Assignment

Examining the Sustainable Procurement Practices in the Public Sector - A Case of ARAMCO (Saudi Arabia) - Assignment Example The given data is relevant to the study. Through an extensive literature, the choice criteria ensured only data relevant to the study was used. The data is also representative of the field of study. It has dissected the procurement practices of ARAMCO and examined the factors responsible for the success and failure of sustainable procurement in a very analytical and exhaustive form. Sense has been created through comparison of several studies and internal consistency has been maintained. Following the large array of databases I had to chose from, I will agree that the data is accurate and my arguments are also profound based on the large array of literature used. The data is accurate considering the fact that this is a secondary research and many of the sources reviewed are peer reviewed. The information given is very systematic and shows the chronology of events. It is divided into two sections, with section one discussing the sustainability of procurement by ARAMCO. The second part being addressed is the alternative source of energy which include solar and wind energy. The intension are full filled through exhaustive examination and dissection of the topic. The beginning of the study is captivating where a clear background is given using a study that was done by other researchers. The end of the study is conclusive where solution and recommendations are made to the problems. In carrying out the research, an extensive research was carried out and the collected data was analyzed in order to come up with new and conclusive ideas based on the research question and synthesis of the identified data. The paper is fluent with no errors in grammar nor style hence enhancing the reader’s understanding. The report also flows in a chronological way from the beginning to the end with a clear guidance on the process and the end

Multiple Regression and Correlation Techniques Assignment

Multiple Regression and Correlation Techniques - Assignment Example The controversy is likely to misinform a research basis and compromise research objectives through poor variable selection and validity issues. Researchers can however resolve the controversy by focusing on theory rather than uninformed bias to the divergent literatures. Effort for limiting the number of variables in a study, subject to influence of identified theory is another approach to resolving the controversy (Hot, Imel and Chan, 2008; Aparasu, 2011). Tests involving mediator and moderator variables generate diversified controversies with inclusion of time factor as the major source of controversy as researchers focus on cross sectional studies in the analyses. Determination of whether a variable is a moderator or a mediator variable is another major source of controversy and may misinform actual relationships among variables into invalid results research implications. A shift from focus on cross sectional studies and an open approach to critical perspectives to developed results are proposed as solution to the mediator and moderator controversy. Researcher integrity is therefore necessary in incorporating divergent views on a study (Hot, Imel and Chan, 2008; Yin,

Policy brief on New York State Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Policy brief on New York State - Research Paper Example Comparing the sin tax levy imposed on our state is significantly similar as the one levied on other states. 2. A sales tax is a tax levied on the sale or lease of goods and services and it is imposed at retail level only. Food tax on the other hand can be defined as the tax imposed on the use of food and its ingredients which are meant for human consumption. Similarly soda tax is a tax levied on soft drinks. There is a significant relationship between these taxes as all of them are aimed at reducing obesity which is in the rise in the state and also the medical cost that come with obesity. Therefore, as a way of curbing obesity and other health related problems these taxes are imposed. 3. Considering the adverse effects of alcohol and cigarette smoking in my New York over a period of time, the number of people who are indulging in these risky activities, which affects their health, have been increasing day by day. Comparing it to other states and also the nation it is posing to be a challenge because the number of people engaging in such activities is increasing among the youths. 4. There is a weak negative correlation of -0.061 between the overall tax and the outcomes at the state level implying that as the tax levied is increased the response towards the use of those products reduces. Similarly the correlation of taxes at different regions indicate a positive correlation implying that both the taxes imposed and the outcomes move in the same direction 5. The demand for tobacco, soda and beer are not affected by either an increase or decrease in the price and therefore this implies that people will continue to indulge in consuming these products even after imposing a ‘sin’ tax. This will affect my recommendation since we need to find a way of curbing their use as they are a health threat. My recommendation is mainly based on the budgetary and public health impact

Postpartum Contraception Essay Example for Free

Postpartum Contraception Essay Postpartum contraceptive methods are those used by breast feeding women before twenty six days after they have given birth. Basing on the NICE guidelines, the advice on how to use these methods should be explained to the patients before their second postpartum week. The breast feeding women are allowed to use the lactational amenorrhoea method but they are not recommended to use the COCP (combined oral contraceptive pills) method by the World Health Organization before the first 42 days postpartum because it’s illegal (outside the license) (WHO, 2006). Below are some of the postpartum contraceptive methods. The contraceptive methods; The combined contraceptive pills (to the breast feeding women) This contraceptive method to breast women brings about some hormonal out comes on the quantity of milk and its quality too. If these pills are taken before 24 weeks postpartum, they affect the baby’s growth. In a previous review of randomized controlled trials held to clarify this case, the review reassured women that hormonal contraceptive method has no strong effects on the baby’s growth. On the other hand, the World Health Organization recommended that, breast feeding mothers before 24 weeks of postpartum should not use the combined contraceptive pills because its use is outside the license (WHO, 2006). Sterilization Basing on the guideline of Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, it shows that women should be alert about the consequences and the increasing rates at which sterilization fails before the postpartum period (Johnson, Edelman and Jensen, 2003). Lactational Amenorrhoe This method is scientifically proved to be effective in preventing unwanted pregnancies, given to a woman, in less than 24 weeks postpartum. As Johnson, Edelman and Jensen (2003) states, she does not experience virginal bleeding after the first seven weeks postpartum, and if she can fully breast feed the baby day and night. Progestogen injectables If this method is used before 42 days of postpartum, it means, that it has been used illegally by the applicant (outside their license). According to Johnson, Edelman and Jensen, (2003), if injectables are used in the early periods of postpartum, it may result into excessive bleeding. It is therefore, recommended that it should be used after 42 days of breast feeding. This may prolong bleeding if applied when not breast feeding in five days of delivery. Emergency contraceptive method This method is not required before twenty one days postpartum and it can be used even if the woman is breast feeding. The IUD may be used after one month postpartum. Implants and the progestogen only pills It is recommended by World Health Organization that this method should not be applied in the first 42 days postpartum (WHO, 2006). On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, this method is commonly used by women before 42 days postpartum since it is proved that it has no effect on the quantity of breast milk and the fact that it does not affect the growth of the baby during this specified period. The following have to be noted for application of POP As noted by (Guillebaud (1993) if its application is started after the first two weeks, there is need for some additional contraception and need to clarify that the woman is not pregnant. If the woman starts to experience constant menstrual cycles again, she has to begin the applying POP including the period of five days without the necessity for additional barrier methods. For Etonogestrel implants Guillebaud (1993) explains that, this can be applied between the first 21 to 28 days of delivery. If it exceeds from 28 days, there is need to apply additional contraception methods for a week. Barrier methods (condoms, cervical caps and diaphragms); Condoms It has been proved by scientists that condoms are eighty seven percent effective when used without any other protective measure. And said to be ninety eight percent effective if used with another measure of protection (spermicide). Every time you have sex, it is recommended that you use condoms (Guillebaud, 1993). Diaphragm As Guillebaud (1993) explains, scientifically, this method is said to be ninety eight percent effective that is if used correctly. It has to fitted by the doctor and used when having sex. Conclusion From what has been discussed above, there are many postpartum contraceptive choices a breast feeding woman can use like POP, COCP, barrier methods such as condoms, cervical caps and condoms, progestogen only pills, and others. Some women are using the COCP method, for example, women in UK, before the first 42 days postpartum and yet it is not recommended by WHO. We there by strongly conclude that women should be keen when taking postpartum contraceptives for the seek of their healthy and the child they have, it is important that they should follow the recommendations of the World Health regarding postpartum contraceptives. Reference Guillebaud, J (1993): Postpartum Contraception: Unnecessary before three weeks: BMJ, Vol. 307, 6918; p 1558-61 Johnson L, Edelman A, and Jensen J (2003): Patient satisfaction and the impact of written material about postpartum contraceptive decisions: AMJ Obstet Gynecology; Vol. 188, 5, p, 1201-5 WHO (2006): Medical eligibility criteria for contraception: Available online at: www. who. int/reproductive-health/public/mec/mec. pdf

Rawls Justice As Fairness Philosophy Essay

Rawls Justice As Fairness Philosophy Essay In this essay I will offer up a critique of Rawls difference principle I will draw out the advantages and problems of Rawls theory in relation to each end of the political spectrum; In a comparison with socialist thought by way of Cohen, and liberal thought by way of Nozick. In relation to Nozick I will initially set out his entitlement theory showing his criticisms of Rawlsian theory; I will go on to side with Rawls and show that Nozicks contrived stance of redistribution as an infringement to liberty and taxation as forced labour is clearly objectionable. Cohen looks to highlight inconsistencies in the Rawlsian theory, questioning, If you are an egalitarian, who come you are so rich? Cohen highlights the moral arbitrariness of Rawls incentives argument based on a moral basis of community values, and shows that a Pareto-improving equality-preserving redistribution can exist; for the most part the two desiderata can co-exist. To show this I will firstly, give a brief overview of Rawl s Theory of Justice. Secondly, I will focus on the difference principle itself for deeper analysis. Thirdly, I will explore a right wing objection to Rawls; examining Robert Nozick and his work, Anarchy, State and Utopia. Fourthly, I will explore a left wing objection to Rawls; examining G. A. Cohen and his work, Rescuing Justice and Equality. Finally, I will concludeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Rawls Justice as Fairness Aristotle envisioned the ingredients of a theory of justice; he held that it is the job of a good political arrangement to provide each and every person with what they need to become capable of living rich and flourishing human lives.  [1]  In contrast Rawls takes justice to be the first virtue of social institutions.  [2]  Rawls set himself the task of establishing what moral principles should govern the basic structure of just society.  [3]  Taking influence from the Social Contract tradition  [4]  Rawls wants us to examine the question from a hypothetical standpoint; asserting that we can come to a rational decision on the principles of justice if we chose them from an original position, behind a veil of ignorance.  [5]  These are two central ideas at the heart of Rawls theory of justice, which he refers to as justice as fairness. Justice for Rawls is the hypothetical contract that would emerge from this thought experiment; in depriving people of particularizin g knowledge people will rationally chose fair principles rather than allowing that knowledge to bias the choice of principles in their own interest.  [6]  The intuitive idea is the link between fairness and ignorance. If I do not know which piece of cake I am going to get, I am more likely to cut fairly than if I do.  [7]  From the range of conceptions of justice available to them the rational choice of persons in the original position would be the two principles which comprise justice as fairness. The first principle requires equality in the assignment of basic liberties (rights and duties).  [8]  The second principle is concerned with social and economic inequalities, and itself has two parts: the principle of fair equality of opportunity, which has priority over, the difference principle; which holds that social and economic inequalities are just only if they maximise the benefit of the least advantaged members of society.  [9]   All social primary goods liberty and opportunity, income and wealth, and the bases of self-respect are to be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any or all of these goods is to the advantage of the least favoured.  [10]   Taken together these mean that a just society will, first and most important, give each of its members the same set of basic liberties or rights: freedom of expression, of religion, of association, of economic inequalities, it will make sure that all citizens enjoy equality of opportunity in the process by which they come to achieve (and avoid) the unequally rewarded positions. Finally, it will only allow such inequalities at all if they tend, over time to maximise the position of the worst-off members of society. The central idea behind Rawlss principles seems clear enough: the output or earnings of a practice is to be distributed equally, unless some pattern of unequal distribution can, in the manner sketched above, be made to work for everyones benefit, and provided that everyone has a shot at the better-paid roles. The Difference Principle Rawls acknowledges that inequality is a natural occurrence but like many natural things which civilized society overcomes for the greater-good it is also possible that society can narrow the gaps of inequality. Rawls states, The natural distribution is neither just nor unjust; nor is it just that persons are born into society at some particular positions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ these are simply natural facts. What is just and in just is the way that institutions deal with these facts.  [11]   He believed the best to contrive a just society is to raise the expectations of those worst-off off members. Rawls does not want a meritocracy and therefore does not believe in wages for ones deserts. Firstly, because there is no way in defining the requisite criteria of deservedness in the original position; secondly, it fails to distinguish between moral desert and legitimate expectation. He saw that success was mostly a result of economic and social serendipity; the work that someone put into their success was not the element that made people deserve high income as the opportunity to succeed is effectively impossible without society. Therefore, society deserves the reward for having enabled you to succeed at all. Additionally talents you are born with should not permit you to command an excessive reward for your lottery success (For instance great singers or sport stars). Even the willingness to make an effort, to try, and so to be deserving in the ordinary sense is itself dependent upon happy family and social circumstances.  [12]   Rawls therefore believed that people ought to be paid enough to give them an incentive to work and enough for them to also give back to society (for instance via tax) but preferably in more direct means as he did not believe in the trickle down system. With this approach he is not compensating those naturally less fortunate for their bad luck nor limiting the gifted from monopolising all their good luck, there can be a great income disparity between people but this must be reflected in the benefit of the worst off. He states, Injustice, then, is simply inequalities that are not to the benefit off all.  [13]  To conclude it seems evident that the second principle is simply about wealth and the redistribution of it so that it benefits society as a whole. Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia Nozick rejects that inequalities must serve, over time, maximally to promote the well-beings of the least advantaged members of society. Conversely he defends the idea of the minimal state promoting a principle of self-ownership that leaves people free to do what they like with property that is theirs; a principle that could justify extreme inequality.  [14]  Nozick asserts that; the logic that leads you to restrict the economic liberties in the way that you do, should also lead you to restrict civil liberties in ways that you dont want to restrict them. Essentially egalitarian liberalism rendered internally consistent yields classical liberalism.  [15]  Hence, Nozick looks to apply the liberal principles that go against state enforcement (i.e. freedom of speech, free association, free immigration) to economic principles.  [16]  Nozick explains by way of analogy:  [17]  if I were to decide I did not want to conform to a societal system of taxation and redistributive j ustice and I were not to use any of the benefits that came from it, (i.e. social welfare, education, health care, etc.), could the state force myself to stay within its borders and force myself to conform to the societal system? He arbitrarily points out that this would be morally wrong, going against the principle of free immigration, infringing your liberty. However, what if I was again to opt out of the same system of taxation and remain in the county, by way of a contractual agreement with the government whereby I never have to pay tax but can never consume any tax provisions. Would this be just? Are we slaves to the state? In applying the same uncontroversial liberal principles to economics Nozick is highlighting the fact that taxation and redistribution of wealth infringes our liberty, restricting our free choice to conform or not to the wishes of the government. Any distribution of wealth can be just if it came about by peoples free choices. He criticises end-state and patterned theories such as Rawls theory of distributive justice, as focusing on the moment, looking at things are now not how things came about. In contrast to his own historical principles; what really matters is not who has what, but how they got it; to be just in economic terms is to have a clean history, on the basis of mutual agreement and voluntary consent. Nozick gives us the analogy of Wilt Chamberlin to extrapolate his claims:  [18]  he asks us to Specify an initial distribution which we feel is legitimate, and then argues that we intuitively prefer his principle of transfer to liberal principles of redistribution as an account of what people can legitimately do with their resources.  [19]   Wilt Chamberlin (a talented basketball player) arrives in town; he agrees to play a game of basketball, fans can watch for the charge of $1.25, with 25 cents going directly to Wilt. This agreement in entered into voluntarily by all willing participants. Suppose now half the population of the town were to agree to the proposed contract and were willing to pay money to see Wilt play, and half the population were not. Wilt Chamberlin stands to earn a substantial amount of money from the voluntary contractual agreement in return for his service (playing a game of basketball). This Nozick points out that this voluntary agreement disrupts the perfect pattern of redistribution. Wealth would no longer be distributed equally for example, and if justice is about achieving a certain pattern or end then the post Wilt distribution is un-just as it will no longer fit the pattern or end. However, that is counter intuitive if the post Wilt distribution is unjust how exactly did the injustice creep i n, so who exactly was treated unfairly in this case? If distribution justice is about achieving some ideal pattern or end, like equality or utility maximisation, where exactly does the injustice arise in the Wilt Chamberlin case? Nozick clearly thinks that no injustice has taken place in this case and his historical principle does a good job of explaining why. Every transfer of wealth in the example takes place on mutually acceptable terms so the fans agree to watch Wilt play for an extra quarter and Wilt agrees to play in exchange for the promised reward; the final distribution of wealth is perfectly just because it came about as a result of just processes. Liberty will upset any pattern or end-state achieved by the interventionist state. To then remedy/restore the pattern or outcome the state would have to continually interfere in our lives. In effect income tax to fund redistribution is forced labour; it gives the poor and needy partial ownership in wage earners.  [20]   Nozicks argument, then, is that to enforce a pattern of redistribution of wealth restricts liberty. A certain picture of what it would be like to enforce a pattern is implied: constant surveillance to make sure on one gets too much or too little, and constant intrusions either to prohibit or to rectify the effects of pattern-breaking transactions. Here Nozick is guilty of a gross exaggeration; he treats all patterned theories of distribution as rigid, when actually, as in the case of Rawls theory, in enforcing a weak pattern it does restrict peoples liberty to a certain extent, but it would be a gross exaggeration to suggest that this infringement was as serious as Nozick maintains.  [21]  In relation to a Rawlsian approach to distributive justice: inequalities are only permissible only in so far as they improve the position of the worst-off. Would the institutions of taxation and welfare benefits really constitute constant interference?  [22]  Nozicks objection can only be t o hold that they do infringe on our liberty, as much that would constitute a rejection of any meddling in ones own affairs. Rawls would hold that: in the trade-off of values, small losses of privacy and liberty are acceptable in exchange for a great deal of poverty alleviation. Thus, redistribution from the better-off to the worse-off, by means of taxation appears not to involve a serious assault on liberty.  [23]   To really know what infringes liberty we would need to go down the road of philosophical analysis to define and construe the intricate working of the notion. To highlight his cause Nozick tries to assert that income taxation is in effect forced labour; a notion which clearly involves an unacceptable violation of liberty. Taking the earnings of n hours labour is like taking n hours from the person.  [24]  To extrapolate on this claim Nozick suggests that the income taxation system unfairly discriminates against people with expensive tastes. As demonstrated by the following analogy: consider the enjoyments of two differing individuals; one enjoys the pleasure of an evening at the theatre, the other takes enjoyment from a country walk. The former will have to work, to earn money to pay for the pleasure, while the latter gains pleasure at no cost to themselves. These poor unfortunates have to pay for their tastes and pleasures, as well as being forced to contribute to the needy, wher eas those who get their pleasure for free are not so required.  [25]  Hence, Nozick suggests that we are discriminating against those with expensive tastes making then work even harder to lead a satisfied pleasurable life. This contrived stance by Nozick is clearly objectionable, forced labour rarely includes the option of deciding how much labour to do. Further, most people have a measure of choice as to the nature of the activity at which they work, and who in particular employs them. This hardly constitutes forced labour.  [26]   Nozick points to specific cases and instances, he is looking for the exception rather than focusing on the rule, he seems to be side-stepping the debate by focusing on the extremes trying to detract from Rawls theory, every theory will have flaws but that does not necessary mean it is not just or worthwhile. Nozicks radical views do encourage debate but do not stand up to Rawls stance; although it would be unfair if tastes were as fixed as eye or skin colour, in fact tastes and pleasures are developed against a range of costs and expectations, so those with expensive tastes are likely to have formed and maintained those tastes knowing them to be expensive.  [27]   Socialist critique Cohen Cohen in Rescuing Justice and Equality literally looks to rescue equality from Rawls incentives argument, that in respect to the difference principle; to ensure high level of productivity is maintained by the better-off members of society, in order to benefit the worse-off, inequalities in wealth are justified as incentives. Cohen is critical of Rawls argument, albeit conceding that incentives may abate suffering; in no way can they formulate justice. This is because such a formulation, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ presupposes a model of society as a non-community, in which relations among human beings are construed as strategic, with people taking one another into account as so many opportunities for, and obstacles to, gain, rather than as fellow citizens by whom they can be asked to justify the way they live.  [28]   Rawls is guilty of a fundamental inconsistency in his conception: Cohen asserts that incentives are only necessary because of the attitudes and choices made by the better-off, more talented citizens. These attitudes and choices are inconsistent, if like Rawls, we assume that the talented support the difference principle and actually want to maximize the position of the worst-off in society. Cohen questions: if youre an egalitarian, how come youre so rich?  [29]   [C]ommunity, or as Rawls denominates it, fraternity, is an important value for Rawls, and one that he claims to be not only consistent with but illustrated by the incentive rationale that I criticizeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[T]he manner in which Rawls applies the difference principle, in his endorsement of incentives inequality, represents abandonment of that very principle.  [30]   Cohen claims that no reasonable account of distributive justice can go through on the assumption that justice pertains only to political structures narrowly conceived because it necessarily involves the conduct of persons in relation to one another in the family and in the full ethical dimensions of life.  [31]   These issues worry Cohen as well as other critics of A Theory of Justice too. There appears to be a conflict between Rawls reasons for saying that justice demands an initial equality of primary goods for all and his argument justifying a move away from equality to a situation where primary goods are unequally distributed.  [32]  Rawls maintains that there is an obvious starting-point when considering a just distribution of primary goods. This starting-point is equality of all such goods. The natural distribution of talents is morally arbitrary, so there is no reason why the talented should be rewarded more than the untalented in the initial situation. However, Rawls also maintains that it is irrational to stick with an equal division of primary goods if it is possible to better the circumstances of everyone, even the untalented, by permitting the talented to enjoy greater rewards than the rest: Imagine, then, a hypothetical initial argument in which all the social primary goods are equally distributed: everyone has similar rights and duties, and income and wealth are evenly shared. This state of affairs provides a benchmark for judging improvements. If certain inequalities of wealth and organizational powers would make everyone better off than in this hypothetical situation, then they accord with the general conception [of justice].  [33]   Here, in a nutshell, is what Cohen calls the Pareto argument for inequality. Starting from equality, a movement to a position of inequality is justifiable so long as everyone benefits from it. Rawls does not see a movement away from equality as entirely compatible with distributional justice. A movement away from equality may be justified if everybody gains from it.  [34]  The value judgement which is relevant to this argument is the weak Pareto principle; if a change is beneficial for everyone then it is a change for the better. This can be viewed in contrast to the strong Pareto principle; if a change is beneficial for at least one person and worse for nobody then it is a change for the better. The Pareto argument, as interpreted by Cohen, assumes that Rawls is appealing to the weak Pareto principle; to justify a movement away from the benchmark of equality.  [35]  Cohen focuses on the initial situation of equality of primary goods as an initial situation. He adds the presumption that there are only two relevant groups, the talented and the un-talented, each group apply the same degree of effort and application. Consequently the talented, by virtue of their talent, produce more than the un-talented, for no extra reward. Some people would regard this as unfair, but in the argument for baseline equality Rawls has treated peoples initial endowments of talent as morally arbitrary and therefore as not meriting extra reward.  [36]   Then, in this original situation both groups receive, and deserve the same wage. However, if a Pareto change is possible, that in moving to a new situation, output would be increased to the benefit of all. If the talented were to apply themselves to a greater extent, increasing output for the reward of a higher wage. The effort and the output of the untalented remains the same but their wage rate also increases but remains less than that of the talented. Thus, everyone benefits from the new situation. The change, Cohen argues, is one which must be endorsed by the Pareto argument.  [37]  The inequality in the second situation is justified by the fact that all benefit in contrast with their original position. Hence, so by the weak Pareto principle it would be irrational for anyone to resist the change. However, Cohen hypothesis a third even more improved situation which would triumph over the unequal situation that arose by way of the first Pareto change. This new situation involves the same characteristics as the second, bar the wage rate would be the same for both the talented and un-talented groups; the talented still working to their maximum capabilities, but now they do not receive extra benefit (incentive) while the un-talented receive even more than in the second situation. Cohen argues that the talented could have no reasonable objection for working to their potential for no extra reward then there would be no need to introduce any inequalities in primary goods.  [38]   Rawls claim about the irrationality of insisting on equality in the face of a Pareto- superior inequality would lose its force, since a Pareto-improving equality-preserving move, in which no one is as badly off as some are in the second situation, would now also be available.  [39]   The obvious objection to this is that it would be unfair to the talented. However, Cohen insists that this argument is inconsistent to Rawls theory as a whole. If in the original situation it was right to discount talent as being morally arbitrary, then this should be applied to the present situation and throughout his whole theory. If in the first situation the talented would have been accused of exploiting morally arbitrary advantages if they had objected to the equality of the situation. Even in the second situation, it is hard to see why an egalitarian should be expected to regard what they then do as acceptable, even if nothing can be done about it.  [40]   In short, Cohen wishes to assess Rawls move from a situation of equality to one of inequality and incentives by reference to a feasible Pareto improvement, a new improved situation, which would preserve equality. If this new situation is not feasible for objective reasons, reasons independent of the attitudes of the talented, then Cohen will regard the second situation as acceptable. However, he thinks that such cases are unlikely. Hence Rawls does not have to choose between inequality and taking advantage of Pareto changes. For the most part the two desiderata can co-exist.  [41]   Conclusion John Rawls Theory of Justice is widely held to be a primary liberal egalitarian solution to a problem that has been debated over by philosophers and politicians since the time of the ancient Greeks. The problem: of how to organise a just and fair society that allows it citizens to live full and flourishing lives. Rawls offers us a theory that provides us with functioning equality in exchange for minimal inequalities in the form of incentives. This focus on wealth is the downfall of the Rawlsian theory; do we really need incentive to value equality and understand the needs of our fellow humans? Cohens emphasis on community and understanding allows for a more equal morally responsible society, one in which allows each and every citizen to work and live according to their own capabilities, and one due to the emphasis on community allowing equality of opportunity to all. These conditions allow and would satisfy Aristotles criteria of becoming capable of living rich and flourishing human lives.

Safeguard Function Of The International Atomic Energy Agency Politics Essay

Safeguard Function Of The International Atomic Energy Agency Politics Essay The safeguards of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have a critical role in increasing and maintaining vigilance for the international community against the potential military usage of the nuclear technology. Based upon the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Article III, the nations with bounding ratifications are to not divert nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devises, and general IAEA inspections and safeguards are the inspector role to ensure that the NPT measures are carried out. Safeguards of the IAEA are the tools, which the IAEA have, in order to ensure world peace literally. Objective of the IAEA safeguards can be summarized to the following: Timely detection of significant quantities of fissile nuclear material. (Significant quantities defined as minimum amount needed for a nuclear explosive device) Detection of undeclared nuclear material and activities in a State The problem here is that the current safeguard functions of the International Atomic Energy Agency, despite numerous strengthening measures, have failed on numerous occasions. Without any direct introduction to disputable events, failures of detection in timely manner or accurate detection was unable to be conducted in regions such as the middle east, regions of former Soviet states, Korean Peninsula, and the Indian subcontinent. Current safeguard function of the IAEA is extremely heavily dependent on individual States transparency of information and in-field verification process, and stronger and tighter inspection is the issue on the current contention. Definition of Key Terms: Strengthening: The word strengthening can be viewed in many different aspects. In this context, however, can be focused in relatively few meanings. One, to reinforce the measures in the current safeguard measures; potentially to reconstruct, rephrase, or add certain measures into the safeguard measures of the IAEA based upon past failures and successes. Two, to strengthen the implementation of the safeguard measures in each respective states via encourages in more invasive means perhaps even at the implementation of the UN Charters Chapter 7 with resolution through the UN Security Council. Safeguard function of the IAEA: As previously mentioned IAEA safeguard function involves the two key functions (Please view introduction if necessary). Quoting from the former IAEA Direction General, Mohamed ElBaradei, Inspections by an impartial, credible third party have been a cornerstone of international nuclear arms control agreements for decades. Where the intent exists to develop a clandestine nuclear weapons program, inspections serve effectively as a means of both detection and deterrence. Core functions of the safeguards of IAEA involve information gathering, threat assessments, and verification of peaceful uses of nuclear energy. In a state level, IAEA works as a third-party observer that receives, confirms, or discards information regards to nuclear technology. IAEA has powers granted by ratification of resolutions and treaties no more no less. Major Players and Their Positions: Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea: Only member to have withdrawn from the IAEA. It has shown capacity to enrich uranium, and other than its repeated nuclear testing has not only confirmed its intent for nuclear explosives, its missile technology indicates a significant threat to the non-nuclear proliferation. Islamic Republic of Iran: IAEA and Iran has a long history from the post revolution period when Iranian nuclear programs became active. Irans nuclear program was established for the first time in 1953 after the CIA supported coup. Most significantly, the recent discovery of the uranium enrichment facility and the self-declaration of nuclear state have significantly elevated its tension with the international community and IAEA measures. Regarding the issue at hand, Iran will most definitely be against any hard-line stance. United States of America: US been one of the strongest supporter and funding member of the IAEA member states. Just recently, President Obama has approached the issue with additional 225 million US dollar increase in US share of the IAEA (During his presidential campaign. It was his campaign promise #194.) Phrasing given in the same speech, as well as numerous actions done by the current administration in response to Iran and the DPRK indicates in strong support of the strengthening of IAEA safeguard functions. Bush administration had taken a hard-line stance in regards to aspiring nuclear powers, but Obama has taken softer, more diplomatic solutions to the issue. Regardless, the increase in measures of verification stance firm. So, US would most likely go against a IAEA with actual conflict with the respective governments, but will be for IAEA safeguards expansion to increase vigilance. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelands: UK is one of the five nuclear-weapon states, and despite its exclusion from NPT with IAEA safeguards, UK has voluntarily opened all fissionable material in facilities or parts within the UK exception to those concerning national security. With regards to actual IAEA safeguard, UK government had certain statements made during the past regards to how the IAEA is too strongly dependent on willingness of nations to cooperate showing the rooms for a hard-line stance on the issue. UK has pushed for sanctions on Iran recently, once again to the point, pointing towards the stronger-IAEA-friendly UK. French Republic: France has recently made statement through the ministry of foreign and European affairs spokesperson to pursue efforts to shed full light on Irans past and present nuclear activities. France is, like the other P5 nations, nuclear weapon states and notable example of peaceful nuclear power usage around the world. More than 70% of its electricity is powered by nuclear power generation. Regards to issue, it will press for a strengthening measures, perhaps not to the line of hard-line stance due to pressure from the PRC, but certainly to an acceptable length. Russian Federation: Russia had previously blocked a IAEA resolution against Iran in earlier 2008, but has recently shifted direction following the DPRK and Iranian actions in the past two years. More recently, Russia backed an IAEA draft resolution on Irans nuclear program in later last year with more leniency towards hard line stance. Cooperation between Russia and IAEA has been noteworthy, and with the recent Russian administrations actions it is most likely that the Russia will push for stronger IAEA safeguards. Peoples Republic of China: China has shown unexpected leniency towards recent Iran incident. Through the Foreign Ministry spokesman Ma Zhaoxu, China have made a statement in favor of negotiation and peaceful settlement. These evidences point towards the fact that China will be against hostile strengthening of the IAEA safeguards. Timeline of Key Events: 1957: The IAEA is set up as autonomous body under the United Nations. 1970: NPT is signed by 188 states and comes into force. IAEA is given specific role of defining and inspecting safeguards. 1986: Chernobyl, Ukraine experiences a devastating catastrophe. IAEA investigates and reports on the consequences IAEA leads on the studies and research. 1994: North Korea withdraws its membership after a dispute over IAEA inspections. 1998: IAEA claims to unable to exercise its right to full and free access at Iraq 2002: Iraq Action Team resumes work under its new name: Iraq Nuclear Verification Office. On the same year, DPRK has also expelled IAEA inspectors and removed surveillance equipment from its nuclear facilities. 2003: Following IAEAs report of Irans failure to meet NPT requirements, IAEA resolution for Iranian uranium enrichment facility is passed. Iran signs an agreement to allow tougher inspection. 2004: More of Iranian nuclear activities that were maintained secrete were discovered and the IAEA resolution comes short of UN sanctions. IAEA calls for suspension of Irans nuclear programs, but Iran initially rejects the proposal soon to accept towards the end of the year. 2005: IAEA adopts resolution urging Iran to stop its uranium enrichment program, but IAEA once again finds Iran in non-compliance with the NPT. 2006: IAEA votes to report Iran to the UN Security Council, and Iran gave threats to resume its research. Later the same year, DPRK nuclear test threatens the international security. 2007: IAEA determines that Iran is continuing and increasing its nuclear activates. IAEA determines in May that Iran can develop a nuclear warhead within three to eight years, and DPRK again expels IAEA inspectors. Iran allows and disallows IAEA inspectors within 3 months of time with IAEA pushing for peaceful negotiation and US pushing for sanctions. 2008: IAEA determines the Pakistans nuclear weapons of danger to potential thefts to Islamic radicals. No measures taken. IAEA once again increases suspicion of secrete nuclear weaponry development, and soon CIA discovers nuclear reactors under construction. DPRK again bans IAEA inspectors. 2009: Additional nuclear test conducted by DPRK, and Iran reveals second uranium enrichment plant. Iran refuses to accept international uranium enrichment offer and IAEA again passes resolution against Iran. 2010: Iran has declared itself to be a nuclear state. The significance of the timeline lies with the trend. Immediate notable trends are the lateness in IAEA identification of threats and incapacity to resolve the issue. A state violates certain treaties, nothing is done. Perhaps IAEA resolution or perhaps even an UN Security Council resolution ultimately to not achieve its goal. Iran and DPRK, as an example, has developed their nuclear program right under IAEAs nose. Detection was literally years behind, and even when discovered the corresponding actions were a failure. Strengthening of the safeguard function of the IAEA is critical to solving the issue. Relevant Treaties and UN Resolutions: Treaties: Most of them are self-explanatory. Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the IAEA: Self-explanatory. Sets the boundaries of the IAEA activities. Cornerstone of IAEAs existence. Potential boundaries of IAEA safeguards functions. Convention on Nuclear Safety: Specific resolution targeted for the purposes of monitoring of operations and regulations of nuclear power plants within each respective states. Part of the IAEA safeguards functions. Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management: Self-explanatory. Treaty regards to IAEA monitoring of the nuclear waste material. Also part of IAEA safeguard functions. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material: Self-explanatory. Treaty in regards to actual military and security issues of protection on nuclear material. Inspection and threat assessment is part of IAEA safeguard functions. Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Key part of the debate as it is NPTs article III is the main purpose of IAEA safeguards. Mentioned in both the introduction and the definition of key terms. Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America, The African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone, Agreement between the Republic of Argentina, the Federative Republic of Brazil, the Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials and the IAEA for the Application of Safeguards, Verification Agreement between the IAEA and the European Atomic Energy Community: All of these are self-explanatory. They regard to nuclear weapons free zone and multilateral agreements regards to nuclear weapons and materials to be inspected by the IAEA; Part of the safeguard functions. Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water: Self-explanatory. Underline parts of the IAEA safeguard function regards to nuclear weapons tests. UN Resolutions UN Security Council Resolutions 1373: UN Security Council resolution concerns with international terrorism and the illegal movement of nuclear materials. The resolution emphasizes the need to enhance coordination of national, regional, and international efforts to strengthen a global response to the spreading nuclear threat. Underlines importance of the third party observer, IAEA, and the safeguard functionss significance in international peace. UN Security Council Resolutions 1540: UN Security Council resolution to enforce appropriate effective laws which prohibit non-State actors to manufacture, acquire, possess, develop, transport, transfer or use nuclear weapons, in particular for terrorist purposes. The measures included involve IAEA and some key actions of safeguard functions. Previously Attempted Solutions and their Failures: This will vary upon the viewpoint of the matter. In certain significance, IAEA measures have failed, based on the past development of nuclear threat, therefore all their actions are failures. Because the so called strength of the IAEA measures is significantly dependent on individual states tolerance, it has changed often over time. For instance the Bush administrations push against the IAEA to strengthen measures against Iran and DPRK has only resulted in more significant failure. In a sense all that has been done failed.

College Candy Making Success That Much Sweeter Essay -- Drugs

As the saying goes, â€Å"Desperate times call for desperate measures.† American college students of the 21st century have been forcefully subjected to highly competitive environments due to a multitude of external factors. As of late, the prescription drug, Adderall has become the drug of choice for ambitious college students, and has earned the title of being today’s college candy and academic steroid. First introduced and approved by the U.S. FDA, Adderall became the common treatment for those suffering from ADHD and narcolepsy. The drug is considered a schedule II stimulant, falling in the same category as cocaine and codeine due to its addictive nature (Tran). Nicknamed â€Å"addy† by college students, Adderall and its effects have been proven to be advantageous to many seeking to maximize work productivity; the drug keeps students energized and engaged in their studies for hours on end (N.S.). As reported by the U.S. Department of Human Health and Human Se rvices, â€Å"among persons aged 18 to 22, full-time college students were twice as likely to use Adderall non-medically in the past year as those who had not been in college at all or were only part-time students† (U.S.). What essentially persuades a college student to take Adderall non-medically? A student’s competitive environment may be an influential factor. The issue of Adderall abuse among college campuses is concerning due to the dangerous short and long term effects in which many of its users are unaware of. An analysis of Adderall usage among college students will be performed in order to determine what can be done to prevent Adderall abuse in college students. Upon examination, it was found that the competitive nature of college campuses in California is resultant of both ec... ...Health and Human Services, 7 Apr. 2009. Print. 02 Dec. 2011. Anonymous. â€Å"Adderall Abuse on College Campuses.† Personal Interview. 22 Nov. 2011. Tranh, Pharmacist Lam. â€Å"Adderall Abuse on College Campuses.† E-mail Interview. 19 Nov. 2011. Mai, Cassandra. "Adderall Abuse on College Campuses." Personal interview. 19 Nov. 2011. Moore, Elaine A. The Amphetamine Debate: the Use of Adderall, Ritalin, and Related Drugs for Behavior Modification, Neuroenhancement, and Anti-aging Purposes. Jefferson, NC: McFarland &, 2011. Print. N.S. "Prescription Stimulants Are Big on Campus." Science News.169.21 (2006): 334. JSTOR. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. Rampell, Catherine. "Many With New College Degree Find the Job Market Humbling." New York Times [New York] 18 May 2011. Print. "U.S. Approval for Adderall XR to Treat Adults† - MedNews. 18 Aug. 2011. JSTOR. Web. 01 Dec. 2011.

Scarlet Letter Summaries :: essays research papers

Chapter Summaries   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chapter 1 This chapter briefly introduces seventeenth-century Boston, where a group of Puritans stand in front of a somber prison or a black flower of civilized society, which seems older that its age. The area around the prison is gray and gloomy. Decay and ugliness are apparent in the author’s descriptions, the only exception is a lovely wild rosebush, whose origin is uncertain, blooming by the prison door.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chapter 2 The chapter opens as the Puritans are discussing Hester Prynne and her sin. With almost no exceptions, the ridged townswomen are unhappy with the mildness of her punishment. Hester comes out of the prison and walks to the scaffold wearing an elaborately embroidered scarlet letter A on her breast, and carrying a small infant in her arms. As she is standing alone on the scaffold she attempts to escape her shame by dreaming of her past life in England.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chapter 3 While standing on the platform, Hester recognizes a man in the crowd who is accompanied by an Indian. This man inquires about her and why she is there. This is where we learn that she has committed adultery (the scarlet letter A is for adultery). The man seems very concerned that the other guilty party should also be on the scaffold. Hawthorne hints that the stranger is her lost husband.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chapter 4 Once she is back in her cell, she is frenzied and a physician is brought in. He is the stranger in the crowd that Hester recognized, and was alarmed by. He gives Hester and her child a sedative, which calms them down and gives them time to talk. We find that he is her husband who was left behind in England. He does not want revenge, he only wants to know who it was that violated his marriage. He then asks that if she will not reveal the name of her lover that she will also keep his identity a secret. Roger Chillingworth, her husband, is determined to make a home in Boston, and find the man who is the father of Hester’s child.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chapter 5 Hester punishes herself more than anyone else could. Once out of prison she has the choice to move anywhere, and leave her past behind, yet she stays near Boston and lives with the torture of always being an example of sin. She works as a seamstress, saving just enough for herself and her daughter, giving the rest to the poor, who are openly hateful.

Al Capone Essay -- Biography Biographies

Al Capone In 1920, the United States entered a new stage in its life, the Era of Prohibition. However, flaws in the planning, execution, and administration caused this noble idea to vacillate unquestionably. However, men who were willing to break the law were the ones that were able to build a lucrative life for themselves; one such man was Alphonse Capone. However, honest men such as Elliot Ness fought adamantly to defend their morals, beliefs, and the law of the land. Nevertheless, Capone was a man who took advantage of his time and lived the life of the American Dream: going from rags to riches. However, it was this very same opulence that caused his downfall and incarceration. The tireless efforts of Elliot Ness eventually paid off when On January 16, 1920, the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States was ratified. This legislation gave legal satisfaction to the temperance movement of the early twentieth century. It officially mandated that the transportation, manufact ure, sale, and consumption of any beverage with an alcohol content of more than .05% was illegal. However, although the U.S. government took the initiative to enact the law, the enforcement of it was severely lacking for several reasons. First, responsibility was given to the Department of the Treasury, not the Department of Justice. This resulted in agents with little to no training in the skills required to execute their duties. Second, these agents received scant salaries that eventually lead to widespread corruption and bribery. In fact, from 1920 to 1926, 148 enforcement employees were convicted of bribery or other alcohol-related offenses. Although the original intent of the Eighteenth Amendment was to lower crime and increase public morale, it mainly served as a catalyst for crime and violence. In 1926, a Senate investigation discovered that most of the illegal liquor being consumed was coming from smugglers, illegal usage of industrial or medicinal alcohol, and moonshine liquor. They concluded that increasing border security could control the smuggling dilemma. The other problems could only be solved by a more competent approach to enforcement, including the restructuring of administration as well as the officers and agents, changes in hiring practices and training, and increased salaries for all agents. However, the main reason for the failure of th... ... and Records Administration 2000). Despite the noble efforts of the U.S. Congress to end the consumption of alcohol, Prohibition was definitely a failure. Both faulty schematization and general sense of public disapproval contributed to the defectiveness of the Eighteenth Amendment. However, from this blunder rose venal men such as the infamous Alphonse Capone. These men gained both notoriety and fear through the practices of corruption and murder. Nevertheless, the tireless efforts of the U.S. government lead by the honest Elliot Ness and his men lead to the eventual downfall of this great pillar of crime. Despite the failure of the Prohibition Era, the United States learn a valuable lesson: the American mind is stubborn and it takes a little more than laws to change it. Bibliography: Bardsley, Marilyn. Al Capone - from the Crime Library. 15 May 2000. http://www.crimelibrary.com/capone/caponemain.htm Wright, Jacob C. The Enforcement Of Prohibition. 15 May 2000. http://mx3.xoom.com/jakewright/prohibition/index.html National Archives and Records Administration. Exhibit: Al Capone Verdict. (15 May 2000). http://www.nara.gov/exhall/originals/capone.html

Comparing Clay Dilham in Up the Slide with Gary Paulsen in A Glow in the Dark Essay

The main character of â€Å"Up the slide† is Clay Dilham who is a young prospector. He decided to get a sled-load of firewood in half an hour. After a hard struggle, he succeeded. The main character of â€Å"a glow in the dark† is Gary Paulsen who ran an eight-dog team in an unknown and dark forest. A strange light frightened him but he finally found what the light was. Both of Clay and Gary have great courage but Clay is braver than Gary. Clay faced a more dangerous situation and more difficulties. First, Clay was very young who was only 17 years old and became a young prospector who traveled to a hostile environment. † The Yukon Territory is located in the northwestern corner of Canada. It is part the subarctic zone, where temperatures have been known to plunge to -80F! †(p315). It is really hard for people to survive in such terrible environment, especially for a 17-year-old teenager. Most of teenager at that age are sitting in a warm classroom and receiving good education. But Clay as a young prospector worked in such terrible place. So he must have great courage and is really very brave. Second, during his trip, he could die every second if he lost his caution. â€Å"A slip at that point meant a plunge over the edge and a twenty-foot fall to the ice. A hundred feet farther along, and a slip would mean a fifty-foot fall. †(p316). It was really dangerous and difficult for people who wanted to survive. For Clay, a young prospector didn’t have so much experience. So he would not expect such a difficult but he keeps being calm it must be his bravery and great courage to support him solve all these difficult problems. Gary faced a less dangerous situation than Clay. First, the ghost and other terrifying things were all created by his imagination. It means that they couldn’t create any physical danger for him. â€Å"Ghosts and goblins and dark nights and snakes under the bed and sounds I didn’t know and bodies I had found and graveyards under covered pale moons and death, death, death †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ (p323) These imaginary things will not make him die at once but in â€Å"Up the slide â€Å" if Gary has a momentary oversight, he will die at once. So the situation that Gary faced is less dangerous than the situation that Clay faced. But he still felt very terrified and didn’t know what to do at that moment. So Clay is braver than Gary. Second, the motivation that pushed Gary to go forward is his curiosity, not his courage or bravery. â€Å"But curiosity was stronger. My legs moved without my wanting them to move and my body followed them. †(p323) Although Gary still went forward with great fear, he didn’t have strong belief like Clay that had great courage to go forward. So Clay is braver than Gary. In conclusion, first Clay faced a more dangerous situation than Gary. Second, Clay had to overcome both physical and metal fear but Gary only needed to overcome his imagination. Third, Clay was always calm but Gary didn’t know what to do when they faced frightening things. So Clay is braver than Gary. When students face some difficulties like problems they can’t solve, keeping calm is always the best solution. So they will come up some good ideas and solve the problem successfully.

Accounts Sba Essay

The aim of my project is for me to arrive at a comprehensive understanding of the financial sector of the business world. To draw up the financial records for the year 2009 for Jen’s Supermarket and to comment on the entity’s performance using appropriate tools of Analysis Description and Overview Jen’s Supermarket is a developed and simulated entity owned by Jenevonne Kirton, who is the sole proprietor. Jen’s Supermarket is a developed supermarket which sells a variety of food items and miscellaneous goods, serving most of the island in its convenient location. The supermarket employ fifteen staff along with Ms. The capital at beginning was 202800 while at end it was 208165 which showed an increase by 5365 at the end of the month. Suggestions/Recommendations Current Ratio It is recommended that Jen’s Supermarket 1. Uses the excess money to expand the business by opening another supermarket. 2. Introduce new product to the business and purchase new equipment. Gross Profit It is suggested that Jen’s Supermarket should 1. Source cheaper suppliers to facilitate the demand of goods so profitability would be greater at the end of the month. 2. Offer new promotions every week and offer the customers raffles at a chance to win prizes at the end of the year. These are given to help Jen’s Supermarket increase gross profit and sales. Conclusion It is clear that Jen’s Supermarket keeps adequate records for the business to demonstrate the profitability over the financial period for the month. It could however, increase the current ratio and gross profit by incorporating the suggestions/recommendations outlined. Nevertheless Jen’s Supermarket made a good net profit for the month of December in 2009. Overall based on the performance of the business Jen’s Supermarket was able to make a profit of 6365 despite the low sales of 104 850.

Article Reflection

In the article it goes over five steps to introduce vocabulary and to teach/ instruct it in a way that will actually resonate with the students. The 5 steps can be compared to the drill and kill method often used with vocabulary terms, which is useful sometimes, but the lasting knowledge is not as well remembered. The first step, key characteristics of vocabulary instruction, deal with multiple exposures, freeloading key vocabulary, and nonlinguistic representations, which we do in class through the use of brain pops, pictures rain during notes, and posters created in class about specific topics.Step two, is using those tier 3 words that are specific to our content with the mixture of tier 2 and tier 1 vocal. Step three, is a print rich environment where students have their work on the walls representing terms learned as well as posters or chances to write/read. Step four is building on vocabulary strategies or, to put in simple terms, routine of studying vocal. Step five is having d igital tools to support the previous steps. I have put these strategies o use in my class with a very good response from my students.Overall they seem to be able to manipulate the terms and then reuse them in the proper way, but also using the term outside of the context learned. I consider this very good because most of the time students will simply use the examples giving in class; which is more memorization than actual retention and comprehension. Below I show you how used each step in class: Step 1: Exposing students to vocabulary in multiple ways such as: flash cards ‘posters created/stories/videos/did gramsStep 2: In notes and explanations I use terms like infer, identity#y', resolve, and other terms that can be used in other areas, but we partner them with tier 3 words that are specific to science. I have heard the students use words in multiple classes that we have studied in my class as well as others. For example they use infer a lot in both social studies and scienc e. Step 3: Student have created their own print rich environment through creating posters, writing stories, giving explanation essays, and creating diagrams.Step 4: Students have learned what to expect when it comes to learning about new vocabulary in class. Typically it will be introduced in their notes along with a picture or demonstration so we may refer back to it. Then students will usually get some kind of worksheet that emphasizes the terms. Followed by hands on activity where they actually must apply those terms and manipulate. Final step is usually creating flashcards or simply answer vocabulary terms.

Costs, perfect competition, monopolies, monopolistic competition Essay

* Total Cost = market value of inputs firm uses in production * Profit = TR – TC * Costs of production = opportunity costs of output of goods and services * Explicit costs = input costs that require outlay of money by firm * i. e. $1000 spent on flour = opportunity cost of $1000 because can’t be spent elsewhere * Implicit costs = input costs that do not require outlay of money by firm * i. e. working as baker at $10/hour, but could be making $20/hour as a computer analyst * Economists include both costs, while accountants often ignore implicit costs * Important implicit cost = opportunity cost of capital. * i. e. use $300,000 savings to buy factory, but could have invested it at interest rate of 5%/year * ? forgone $15,000/year in interest income = implicit opportunity cost of business * i. e. use $100,000 savings and borrow $200,000 from bank * Explicit cost will now include $10,000 paid to bank in interest * Opportunity cost is still $15,000 (OC of $10,000 paid to bank is $10,000 and there is a forgone interest savings of $5000) * Economic profit = TR – TC (including both explicit and implicit costs) * Accounting profit = TR – TEC (total explicit costs). * Consequently, accounting profit is often > economic profit * For economist, business is only profitable if it can cover all explicit and implicit costs Production & Costs * In short run = size of factory is fixed because it cannot be built overnight, but output can be varied by varying the number of workers * In long run = size of factory and number of workers can be varied * Production function: relationship b/w quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good (short-run) * Marginal product = increase in output that arises from additional unit of input * MP = ? TP/? Q * Law of diminishing marginal product = property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases * Slope of production function (quantity of input vs. quantity of output) = marginal product * Graph become â€Å"flatter† as marginal product decreases (see graph) * Total cost curve = graph w/ quantity produced on x-axis and total cost on y-axis * Graph becomes â€Å"steeper† as quantity of output increases (see graph). * Fixed costs = costs that do not vary with quantity of output produced * i.e. rent of factory, bookkeeper’s salary etc. * Variable costs = costs that do vary with the quantity of output produced * i. e. cost of raw materials, wages of workers (increases as more output produced) etc. * Average Total Cost = TC/Q * Also equal to average fixed cost + average variable cost * Average fixed cost = FC/Q * Average variable cost = VC/Q * Marginal cost = increase in total cost arising from an extra unit of production * MC = ? TC/? Q * Marginal cost rises as the quantity of output produced rises (see graph) Typical Cost Curves * In many firms, MP does not start to diminish immediately after hiring 1st worker * 2nd or 3rd worker may actually have higher MP than first, b/c a team of workers can divide tasks and work more productively than a single worker * AFC, AVC, MC, and ATC will look different for this scenario Costs in the Short Run and in the Long Run. * Division of total cost between fixed and variable costs depends on time horizon * In a few months, GM cannot adjust number/size of factories, only workers * Cost of factories, is therefore, fixed cost in short run * Over several years, however, GM can expand size and number of factories * Cost of factories, is therefore, variable cost in long run * Because fixed costs become variable in the long run, the ATC curve in short run differs from the ATC curve in the long-run * Long-run ATC is much flatter than short-run ATC * Short-run curves also lie on or above long-run curves. * Properties arise because firms have greater flexibility in the long run – can choose which short-run curve they wish to use * In short-run, b/c of diminishing marginal product, increasing quantity of output increases ATC * In long-run, there are situations where ATC does not change with an increase in output * Constant Returns to Scale: long-run ATC stays same as quantity of output changes * Diseconomies of Scale: long-run ATC rises as quantity of output increases . * Often arises because in large organizations, coordination problems arise – difficult to organize and mobilize vast amounts of labour and raw materials * Economies of Scale: long-run ATC falls as quantity of output increases * Often arises because at higher production levels, workers can specialize * Analysis explains why long-run ATC curves are often U-Shaped * Long-run ATC falls at low levels of production b/c of increasing specialization, and rises at high levels of production b/c of increasing coordination problems What is a competitive market? * Perfectly competitive market has two characteristics: (1) many buyers and many sellers in the market, (2) goods offered by various sellers are largely the same * Goal of perfectly competitive markets is to maximize profits * Actions of any single buyer or seller in market has negligible impact on market price * Each buyer and seller takes market price as given * i. e. no single buyer of milk can influence the price of milk because the buyer purchases a small amount relative to the size of the market * Each seller of milk also as little influence on price of milk, because it is selling milk that is virtually identical to the milk of other sellers. * B/c they must accept market price, buyers and sellers in competitive market = â€Å"price takers† * i. e.if a dairy farm doubles its output of milk, the price of milk remains the same, but their total revenue will double * Total revenue will increase because increase in quantity sold, not increase in price * Sometimes, (3) characteristic of competitive market also used – firms can freely enter or exit the market in the long run * Average revenue = total revenue/quantity sold. * AR = TR/Q * For all firms, average revenue equals the price of the good * Marginal revenue= change in total revenue from an additional unit sold * MR = ? TR/? Q * For all competitive firms, marginal revenue equals the price of the good Three general rules of profit-maximization: * If MR > MC, firm should increase its output * If MR < MC, firm should decrease its output * At the profit-maximizing level of output, MR = MC * Remember, because a competitive firm is a price taker, its MR is equal to the market price Note: In essence, because the firm’s marginal-cost curve determines the quantity of the good the firm is willing to supply at any price, it is the competitive firm’s supply curve Firm’s Short-Run Decision to Shut Down * Shut-down refers to short-run decision to not produce anything during a specific period of time b/c of current market conditions. * Exit refers to a long-run decision to leave the market * Firm that shuts down temporarily still has to pay fixed costs, whereas a firm that exits the market saves fixed costs and variable costs * i. e.if farmer decides not to produce crops one season, rent for land becomes sunk cost, but if farmer decides to sell farm altogether, no sunk costs * Firm shuts down if total revenue from production is less than its variable costs of production * Shut down if TR < VC * Alternatively, shut down if TR/Q < VC/Q . * Which means, shut down if P < AVC * On graph, if market price is less than minimum point on AVC curve, firm shuts down and ceases production – firm can re-open if market price changes to be higher than minimum point * Therefore, point at which MC intersects AVC is the â€Å"shutdown price† * If a firm shuts down temporarily, its fixed costs are sunk costs * Firm can safely ignore these costs when deciding how much to produce * i. e. why don’t many restaurants close down at lunch time when they are nearly empty? * Because the fixed costs (rent, kitchen equipment, plates, silverware etc. ) would still have to be paid, only the variable costs (cost of additional food and wages to stuff) would be saved * Owner can make enough profit to cover these variable costs, and therefore, keeps the restaurant open Firm’s Long-Run Decision to Exit or Enter a Market * The firm exits the market if the revenue it would get from producing is less than its total costs * Exit of TR < TC * Alternatively, exit if TR/Q < TC/Q * Which means, exit if P < ATC and enter if P > ATC * Therefore, point at which MC intersects ATC is the â€Å"exit/entry price† Measuring Profits from Graphs * Recall, Profit = TR – TC. * Alternatively, Profit = (TR/Q – TC/Q) x Q * Which means, Profit = (P – ATC) x Q The Supply Curve in a Competitive Market * So far we have examined supply decision of single firm – now examining supply curve of market * Two possibilities – short term = fixed number of firms, long term = firms can enter and exit The Short-Run: Market Supply with a Fixed Number of Firms * In short-run, the number of firms in the market is fixed * As a result, the market supply curve reflects the individual firms’ marginal-cost curves, only with increased magnitude (both graphs same, but market quantity multiplied by some scalar value) The Long-Run: Market Supply with Entry and Exit. * Assume all firms and all potential firms have same cost curves * If firms already in market are profitable, new firms will have incentive to enter the market * Entry if P >ATC because profit is positive (recall, Profit = (P – ATC) x Q) * Entry = expand # of firms, increase quantity of good supplied, and drive down prices and profits * If firms already in market are experiencing losses, firms may exit the market * Exit if P < ATC because profit is negative * Exit = decrease # of firms, decrease quantity of good supplied, and drive up prices and profits * At the end of this process of entry and exist, firms that remain the market must be making zero economic profit * In other words, the process of entry and exist ends only when price and average total cost are driven to equality (P = ATC). * This has a surprising implication—we earlier noticed that firms produce so that P = MC * We just noted that free entry and exist forced P = ATC * The only way this can occur is of MC = ATC, and this occurs only when the firm is operating at the minimum of average total cost—called the â€Å"efficient scale† * ? long-run equilibrium of a competitive market with free entry and exit must have firms operating at their efficient scale * Long-run supply curve (market) will be horizontal at the price which corresponds to the minimum of average total cost * Any P above this level generates profit, leading to entry and increase in total quantity supplied * Any P (price) below this level creates losses, leading to exit + decrease in total quantity supplied * Eventually, number of firms in market adjusts so P = minimum of ATC, and there are enough firms to satisfy all the demand at this price Why do competitive firms stay in business if they make zero profit? * Remember that economic profits are not the same as accounting profits * Economic profit accounts for opportunity cost as well * So, when a firm makes zero economic profit, it may still be making accounting profits A Shift in Demand in the Short Run and Long Run * Because firms can enter and exit more easily in the long run than in the short run, the long-run supply curve is typically more elastic than the short-run supply curve Chapter 15: Monopoly Why Monopolies Arise. * Firm is monopoly if it is sole seller of its product and if its product has no close substitutes * Case of monopoly is barriers to entry: a monopoly remains only seller in a market because other firms cannot enter market and compete with it * Barriers to entry are monopoly resources, government-created monopolies, and natural monopolies Monopoly Resources. * Single firm owns a key resource * i. e. only one well in town and no way to get water from anywhere else * Rarely occurs because economies are large and resourced owned by many people Government-Created Monopolies * Government gives one person or firm exclusive right to sell good or service * Two important examples are patent and copyright laws * Both lead to higher prices than under competition, but encourage desirable behaviour * Drug companies allowed patents to encourage research, and authors allowed copyrights so they write more original books * Monopoly = increased incentive for creative activity, but at a higher cost Natural Monopolies. * Single firm can supply good or service to entire market at lower cost than could 2 or more firms * Occurs when firm has economies of scale over relevant range of output * In other words, firm’s ATC curve continually declines because when production is divided among more firms, each firm produces less, and ATC rises – single firm can produce as smallest cost * i. e. to provide water to town, firm must build network of water pipes – if two firms involved, both would have to pay fixed cost of water pipe, resulting in increased ATC. * Natural monopoly = less concern about new entrants * Normal monopoly’s profits attract entrants to market, but in a natural monopoly, new entrants cannot achieve same low costs that monopolist enjoys * If a market expands (greater demand) natural monopoly can evolve into competitive market Monopoly vs. Competition. * Monopoly can influence market price of output, while competitive firm cannot * As monopoly is sole producer in market, it can alter price of good by adjusting supply to market * Demand curve for competitive market is perfectly elastic (can sell as little or as much as it wants at one price), while down-ward sloping for monopoly * ? monopoly has to accept lower price to sell more output, and can only accept higher price by selling less output – so what price and quantity will it choose to maximize profits? Monopoly’s Revenue * AR = price of good (true for monopoly and competitive), but MR is not equal to price of good. * As a result, average-revenue curve is also monopolist’s demand curve * When monopolist increases quantity sold, has two effects on total revenue (P x Q): 1) the output effect = more output sold, so Q is higher, which trends to increase total revenue 2) the price effect = price falls, so P is lower, which tends to decrease total revenue * Competitive firm as no price effects – price taker, therefore can sell as little or as much as it wants, without any change in price * ? Output/price effect causes monopolist’s MR after first unit sold to always be less than price of the good * Consequently, monopoly’s marginal-revenue curve always lies below its demand curve Profit Maximization * Profit-maximizing quantity of output as determined by intersection of MR and MC curve * Some key differences between monopolies and competitive firms: * P = MR = MC (competitive). * P > MR = MC * In competitive markets, price equals marginal cost, and in monopolized markets, price exceeds marginal cost – crucial to understanding the social cost of monopoly Monopoly’s Profits * Recall, Profit = TR – TC * Alternatively, Profit = (TR/Q – TC/Q) x Q * Which means, Profit = (P – ATC) x Q * Same as in competitive markets Monopoly Drugs vs. Generic Drugs * What happens to price of a drug with patent runs out? * Monopoly firm maximizes profit by producing quantity at which MR = MC, and charging price well above MC * Therefore, when patent runs out, the price of the good falls to MC * Note: MC for drugs is almost always constant. * Monopolist does not lose all market, however, because many buyers remain loyal to brand-name, and therefore, brand-name can still sell at slightly higher price than â€Å"generic brands† Welfare Cost of Monopoly * Monopolies = higher prices than competitive firms = undesirable for consumers = desirable for producers in terms of total revenue * Is it possible that monopoly is desirable from the standpoint of society as a whole? * Recall total surplus measures well-being of buyers and sellers in a market * Producer surplus is amount producers receive for a good – (minus) their costs of producing it * Consumer surplus is consumers’ willingness to pay for a good – amount they actually pay for it * In this case, single producer is monopolist The Deadweight Loss * Consider case of a â€Å"benevolent social planner†. * Social planner care not only about profit earned by firm’s owners, but also benefits received by the firm’s consumers * Planner tries to maximize total surplus, which is producer surplus (profit) plus consumer surplus * Alternatively, value of good to consumers – costs of making the good to monopoly producer * Demand curve reflects value of good to consumers *. Marginal cost curve reflects cost to the monopolist * Consequently, the socially efficient quantity is found were the demand curve and marginal-cost curve intersect * If social planner were running the monopoly, he would achieve efficient outcome by charging the price found at the intersection of demand curve (AR-curve) and the MC curve – much like a competitive market * However, monopolists charge the price found at the intersection of the MC and MR curve * ? the monopolist produces less than the socially efficient quantity of output, and charges more than the socially efficient price * When the monopolist charges a price higher than the marginal cost, some potential consumers value the good higher than the MC but lower than the monopolist’s price * Consumers do not buy the good, and monopoly pricing prevents mutually beneficial trade * The deadweight loss triangle = total surplus lost = reduction in economic well-being from monopoly Is Deadweight Loss a Social Problem? * Not necessarily a problem for society * Welfare in monopolized market includes welfare or both consumers and producers * When a consumer pays extra dollar to producer because of monopoly price, consumer is worse off by a dollar, and producer is better off by same amount * Transfer from consumer to producer does not affect total surplus—sum of consumer and producer surplus * Unless, consumers are for some reason more deserving than producers—a normative judgement about equity that goes beyond realm of economic efficiency. * Problem arises because firm produces and sells a quantity of output below the level that maximizes total surplus Price Discrimination * Business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different consumers * Can occur in a monopoly (firm with market power), not in a competitive market * In competitive market, many firms selling same good at market price—no one would lower market price for any customer as they can sell any given quantity at one price * Increasing price would also be pointless, as customer would simply buy from another firm A Parable about Pricing. * Dry-cleaning example from class – charge adults $10 and charge students $5 with a stdent card * Choosing to forgo market of students at $5 results in deadweight loss because students do not end up putting their shirts into dry-cleaning, though they value the service more than its MC of production * With price-discrimination, however, everyone ends up with a shirt . * Price discrimination can eliminate the inefficiency inherent in monopoly pricing, because differentiating prices allows producer to charge customer price closer to customer’s willingness to pay than is possible with a single price Notes about Price-Discrimination * Monopolist must be able to separate customers according to willingness to pay—either geographically, by age, by income etc. * Arbitrage prevents price-discrimination – process of buying good in one market at a low price and selling it in another market for a higher price * Increased welfare from price-discrimination is all higher producer surplus, not consumer surplus * Adults/students no better off from having cleaned shirts—paid price they were willing to pay * Entire increase in total surplus is a result of higher profits for the monopolist The Analytics of Price Discrimination. Perfect price discrimination = situation in which a monopolist knows exactly the willingness to pay of each customer and can charge each customer different prices accordingly * Monopolist gets the enter surplus in every transaction * Also sometimes referred to as first-degree price discrimination * Refer to diagrams (a) and (b). * (a) firm charges single price above MC, and b/c some potential customer who values good at more than MC does not buy it at this high price, monopoly causes deadweight loss * (b) each customer who values good at more than MC buys good and is charged willingness to pay – mutually beneficial trade takes place, no deadweight loss, and entire surplus derived from market goes to monopoly producer in form of profit * Of course, in real life, price discrimination is never perfect because various customers are willing to pay various different prices – two forms of imperfect price discrimination . * 1) second-degree price discrimination = charging different prices to same customer depending on quantity of product bought * 2) third-degree price discrimination = market can be segmented and segments have different elasticities of demand * i. e. movie theatres charge lower price for children and senior citizens than for other patrons * Makes little sense in a competitive market, where price = MC, and MC for providing seat to child/senior citizen is same as anyone else. * If movie theatre has local monopoly, however, price-discrimination has motives * Demand curve for adults is less elastic, therefore can charge higher price, whereas demand curve for children/seniors is more elastic, therefore can charge lower price * How does imperfect price discrimination affect welfare? * Compared to monopoly outcome with single price, imperfect price discrimination can raise, lower, or leave unchanged total surplus in a market—however, always raises monopoly’s profits Examples of Price Discrimination * Airline Prices – charge less if stay over Saturday night or purchase two weeks ahead to separate personal travellers, from business travellers, who pay more * Discount Coupons – rich, busy executive will not clip coupons, whereas a unemployed individual will, allowing price discrimination * Financial Aid – separate wealthy students willing to pay high tuition from less well-off students * Quantity Discounts – bulk is cheaper because customer’s willingness to pay for an additional unit declines as the customer buys more units Public Policy towards Monopolies. * Monopolies fail to allocate resources efficiently * Produce less than socially desirable quantity of output * Charge prices above marginal cost Policymaker’s Response * Increasing Competition with Competition Law – for example, mergers * Regulation – natural monopolies not allowed charging whatever price they want, but what price should government set of a natural monopoly? * One might conclude set P = MC, so customers equal quantity of output that maximizes total surplus, and allocation of resources is efficient * However, natural monopolies always have declining ATC ? MC < ATC, if P = MC, then P < ATC, and firm loses money and exits industry * Government can subsidize monopolist and pick up losses inherent to MC-pricing, but would need to raise money through taxation for subsidy, and taxes have own deadweight loss * Alternatively, regulators can allow monopolist to charge price higher than MC, and if regulated P equals ATC, monopolist earns exactly zero economic profit * Yet, average-cost pricing leads to deadweight losses b/c monopolist’s price no longer reflects MC or producing good * Ultimate problem with MC- and AC-pricing is it gives monopolist no incentive to reduce costs—normally reduce costs to increase profits, but in these cases, monopolist will not benefit * Solution: keep some benefits from lower costs in form of higher profit, and practice something that is a small departure from MC-pricing. * Public Ownership—government owns natural monopoly instead of private firm * Doing Nothing—degree of â€Å"market failure† in economy smaller than â€Å"political failure† in gov’t Differences and Similarities | Competition| Monopoly| Similarities| Goal of firms| Maximize profits| Maximize profits| Rule for maximizing| MR = MC| MR = MC| Can earn economic profits in short run? | Yes| Yes| Differences| Number of Firms| Many| One| Marginal Revenue| MR = P| MR < P| Price| P = MC| P > MC| Produces welfare-maximizing level of output? | Yes| No| Entry in long run? | Yes| No| Can earn economic profits in long run? | No| Yes| Price discrimination possible? | No| Yes| Chapter 16: Monopolistic Competition. * Oligopoly: market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical products * Concentration ratio: percentage of total output in market supplied by four largest firms * Monopolistic competition: market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical—following qualities: * Many sellers ? firms competing for same group of customers. * Product differentiation ? downward-sloping demand curve * Free entry and exit ? market adjusts until economic profits driven to zero Monopolistically Competitive Firm in the Short Run * Products are different ? faces downward-sloping demand curve * Same profit maximization rule as monopoly (Q at MR = MC and equivalent P on demand curve) * Identical to monopoly The Long Run Equilibrium. * When firms make profit in the short-run, new firm have incentive to enter the market * Demand curve shifts to left (reduces demand of each individual firm) * As demand for firms’ fall, firms experience declining profit * Conversely, when firms incur losses in short-run, firms exit * Demand curves shift to right (demand experienced by individual firms increases) * As demand for firms’ products rises, firms experience rising profit. * Entry/exit continues until firms in market make zero economic profit (P = ATC) * Demand curve is tangent to ATC (just touching, never crossing) * Characteristics of long-run equilibrium in monopolistic competition * As in monopoly market, P > MC (for profit maximization, MR = MC, and downward-sloping demand curve makes MR < P) * As in competitive market, P = ATC (free entry and exit drive economic profit to 0) Monopolistic vs. Perfect Competition Excess Capacity. * Entry and exit drive each firm in monopolistically competitive market to point of tangency between demand and ATC curves * However, this means quantity produced is less than that produced at the â€Å"efficient scale† –quantity that minimizes ATC (point at which MC intersects with ATC) * Perfectly competitive firms produce at the efficient scale * Monopolistically competitive firms therefore have excess capacity—they are not producing as much as they potentially can * Firm forgoes opportunity to produce more because it would need to cut prices to sell the additional output * More profitable to continue operating at excess capacity Markup over Marginal Cost. * Relationship between Price and Marginal Cost also different * Competitive firm, P = MC * Monopolistic competition, P > MC, because it must be for P = ATC * This leads to behavioural differences b/w perfect and monopolistic competitors * Perfectly competitive firm does not care for additional customers because P = MC, profit from extra unit sold is always zero * By contrast, monopolistically competitive firms P > MC, therefore, extra units sold = more profit Monopolistic Competition and Welfare of Society * One source of inefficiency is that P > MC * Some consumers who value good at more than MC, but less than P will not buy the good * ? deadweight loss similar to that of monopoly pricing * Another source of inefficiency is: 1) Product-variety externality: b/c consumers get some consumer surplus from introduction of new product, entry of new firm conveys +ve externality on consumers 2) Business-stealing externality: b/c other firms lose customers and profits from entry of a new competitor, entry of new firm imposes negative externality on existing firms * Perfectly competitive firms produce identical goods and charge P = MC, therefore neither externality exists under perfect competition * ? Monopolistically competitive markets do not have desirable welfare properties of perfectly competitive markets because it is not ensured that total surplus is maximized * Also very difficult to control these inefficiencies through public policy Advertising * Amount of advertising depends on products * Firm that sells highly differentiated consumer goods i. e.soft drinks, will need to advertise more than seller of undifferentiated industrial nails, or homogenous products like wheat * Some people critique advertising for convincing people that products are more different than they actually are, fostering brand loyalty and encouraging consumers to ignore price differences * With less elastic demand curve, firm charges larger markup over MC. * Support for brands suggests that brands provide consumers with information about quality of goods, and gives firms incentive to maintain high quality to protect reputation of brand names * Others believe encourages competition as it makes customers better informed about products * Advertising can signal quality of product as well, because firm willing to spend money on advertising must be creating a good product.